Preface
For thousands of years, Jewish children have been taught that their ancestors were slaves in Egypt. They were instructed that God, with a strong hand and an outstretched arm, rescued the Jewish people from slavery and brought them to the land He promised to their patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob.
In recent years, a number of respected Israeli archaeologists and historians, after considerable thought and analysis, have concluded that Jewish residence and slavery in Egypt is most likely a religious cultural tradition and not an actual historical fact. To support their view, they point to the total absence of any evidence of Israelite residence and slavery in Egypt and to the 40 years of traversing the Sinai Desert.
Of course, to prove that something occurred is simply a matter of assembling credible facts that support that proposition. However, to prove that something did not occur, if even possible, is a herculean task because of the old proverb that the “absence of proof of an event is not proof that the event did not occur.” Like many old aphorisms, they can sometimes be more charming than useful. Consider, that the continuous absence of proof of a heartbeat and breath is generally accepted as proof of death.
It is important to note that the notion of the absence of Israelite residence, slavery and Exodus from Egypt has immense implications. Without it, Mount Sinai likely did not occur, Passover would be the celebration of a mythical series of events and the Torah would possess imaginary elements of the history of the Jewish people.
The Source
The sole and exclusive source of information regarding the Israelites’ residence in Egypt, the transition to slavery, and the Exodus from Egypt is contained in the Torah delivered by Ezra to the Second Temple on or about 450 BCE (hereinafter, all references to the word Torah, unless expressly distinguished, shall refer to the 450 BCE Written Torah).
The Torah, comprising the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy has traveled through history with an assortment of names: the Torah, the Five Books of Moses, the Old Testament, the Bible, the Pentateuch, the Chumash and others. The authorship of the Torah has, over the years, been the subject of many inquiries.
Early on, among the extremely devout members of the Jewish community it was believed that God had written the Torah as a living manual for His people. With the passage of time and because the Torah does not claim divine authorship, that notion has largely passed into antiquity. For many, it was easier to credit the authorship of the Torah to human effort, but still maintaining that it was divinely inspired, without severing its origin from God.
Because the document is referred to as the Five Books of Moses, it was for some time thought to have been authored by Moses. However, the notion that Moses, alone, wrote all five books presented scholars with problems. There are some obvious contradictions in the text. The chronology of events is occasionally out of sync, e.g., it describes Moses going to the Tabernacle in a chapter before Moses built the Tabernacle.
In 1987, Richard Elliott Friedman, Professor of Hebrew Literature at the University of California, wrote the book “Who Wrote the Bible?”, wherein he analyzed the authorship of the books of the Torah. His exhaustive examination of the authorship of each of the books lead to his conclusion that the Five Books of Moses were actually written by four different authors. One of his significant observations was that there were different names ascribed to God in the various sections of the Torah. Most scholars today consider his analysis to be creditable and believe that the Bible was written by four scribes between the late 8th century BCE and the early 6th century BCE.
Journey from Canaan to Residence and Slavery in Egypt, According to the Torah
In Genesis 45:6, the Torah recounts that a famine had overtaken the land of Canaan. Joseph, then Regent of Egypt, invited his father Jacob and the entire family to live in Goshen, Egypt, where Joseph could provide for them. All the members of Jacob’s family, totaling 66 people, left Canaan for residence in Goshen (Genesis 46:26). They resided there for a period of time until a later Pharaoh, concerned about their fealty to Egypt, turned all of the Israelites into slaves. In Exodus 12:40, the Torah recounts that the Israelites resided in Egypt for 430 years.
The Israelites’ slavery ended when Moses, with the help of 10 plagues and multiple miracles provided by God, loosened the bonds of servitude for more than 2 million Israelite slaves. The size of the Exodus population is calculated from the Torah’s report of an early census showing 600,000 Israelite men (Exodus 12:37). When women and children are added, the entire Israelite Exodus population is calculated to be more than 2 million.
This writer nostalgically recalls the Passover Seders of his youth. His sweet father would commence the Seders with a serious countenance while uttering the phrase “We were slaves to the Pharaoh of Egypt.”
The Position of Those Who Maintain that the Israelites Never Resided or were Enslaved in Egypt
The Exodus deniers point to the fact that in Egypt there is not one scintilla of evidence that the following ever occurred:
- That the Twelve Tribes of Israel ever resided in Egypt.
- That the Twelve Tribes of Israel were ever slaves in Egypt.
- That the male infants of the Twelve Tribes of Israel were put to death by drowning.
- That the waters of the Nile and other water sources turned to blood, killing the fish and making the water undrinkable.
- That frogs swarmed throughout Egypt, invading houses and food.
- That a plague of lice and gnats infested the land and people.
- That swarms of flies plagued the Egyptians, especially the Royal Palace.
- That a deadly disease killed the livestock of the Egyptians, causing immense economic hardship.
- That open sores and boils appeared on the bodies of the Egyptians and their animals.
- That a violent hailstorm destroyed crops and trees, causing ruin.
- That massive swarms of locusts descended in Egypt, devouring any remaining vegetation.
- That a period of three days of complete darkness enveloped the land, so thick that it could be felt.
- That death took the lives of all firstborn male Egyptians and their animals.
The Exodus deniers suggest that even the invisibility of several thousand Israelites in Egypt, over such an extended period, would constitute an enormous stretch of imagination. But, the invisibility of 2 million Israelites in Egypt, who also served as slaves during a sizable portion of 430 years of residence, challenges all reasonable bounds of credibility.
Mount Sinai
For many Jews with only a nominal connection to Jewish culture, the words “Mount Sinai” brings to mind the name of a hospital, a cemetery or a synagogue. For those more steeped in their faith and history, Mount Sinai is a mountain in the Sinai Peninsula where God delivered the Torah to the Jewish people.
The Sinai Peninsulais situated in Egypt between the Gulfs of Suez and Aquba at the northern end of the Red Sea (Sea of Reeds). It covers some 23,500 square miles of mountains and desert. But specifically, where is Mount Sinai? An answer to that inquiry might likely be “only God knows.” There are no fewer than 12 sites that, over the years, have been identified as the real Mount Sinai. Currently, the most popular choice is Mount Jabal Musa, with a height of 2,285 meters in the southern part of the Sinai Peninsula. Other proposed sites are in different locations in the Sinai, in Saudi Arabia, in Jordan and in Lebanon.
There is no place, outside of the State of Israel, that has as much spiritual and historical meaning to the Jewish people as “Mount Sinai.” It is, as the Torah teaches, the place where Jews transitioned from a slave people to the bearers of God’s word to the world.According to Jewish tradition, the Jews received the Torah at Mount Sinai. It is generally accepted that thecivilizing and spiritual words of the Torah were never meant to be the exclusive possession of the Jewish people. Rather, the Jews received it for sharing with all nations.
It is important to note that Mount Sinai is not only relevant to the Jewish people. The Christian Bible contains the Old Testament, which relates the story of Mount Sinai and the deliverance of the Ten Commandments. For Muslims, the events in Mount Sinai also have special importance since both Moses and Aaron are regarded as prophets of Islam. Muslims believe that God had revealed himself to the earlier prophets of the Jews and the Christians such as Abraham, Aaron, Moses and Jesus. Therefore, they accept some of the teachings of the Jewish Torah and the Christian Gospels. In the world today, it is estimated that there are presently 2.5 billion Christians, 1.9 billion Muslims and 15.7 million Jews.
The Events that Occurred at Mount Sinai, According to the Torah
Most Judaic timelines identify the Exodus from Egypt as on or about 1280 BCE. Given that the Torah describes the occurrence at Mount Sinai to be 90 days after leaving Egypt, a date for the Exodus of 1280 BCE appears reasonable. While the Written Torah is the only source of information as to what occurred at Mount Sinai, it appeared on the scene about 450 BCE, a period of 830 years after the reported events of Mount Sinai.
Three months after exiting slavery in Egypt, more than 2 million former slaves entered the wilderness of Sinai and encamped by Mount Sinai. Moses went up the mountain where God called out to him saying, “Thus shall you say to the house of Jacob, and tell the people of Israel: You have seen what I did to the Egyptians, and how I bore you on Eagles wings and brought you to myself. Now therefore, if you will obey my voice and keep my confidence, you will be my own possession among all peoples; for all the earth is mine. And you shall be to me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exodus 19:3-5). Moses then relates the Lord’s covenant to the Israelites and instructs them to wash their garments and be ready to meet the Lord who will come down to Mount Sinai in sight of all the people.
In the morning of the third day, there was thunder and lightning, loud trumpet blasts and a thick cloud hung over the mountain. Moses brought the people out of the camp to meet God and they stood at the foot of the mountain, which was enveloped with smoke because the Lord descended upon it in fire. The entire mountain quaked as the sound of the trumpets grew louder and louder. Moses warned the people not to touch or go up the mountain because it would assuredly result in death. And then God spoke. He solemnly recited the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:1-14). The people were frightened by the thunder, the lightning, the loud sounds of the cornet and the smoking mountain. They withdrew from proximity to Mount Sinai and petitioned Moses, “speak thou with us and we will hear, but let not God speak with us, lest we die.” They were terribly frightened and enjoined Moses to learn the laws of God and teach the laws to them.
Noting that out of fear His audience had changed, God spoke directly to Moses and instructed him in the code of law called Mishpahtim, and other laws formalizing the relationship between God and the people of Israel (Exodus 21-23). The Mishpahtim are the exquisite compendium of laws and rules governing both civil and criminal justice and conduct of a population. Moses told the people all the words of the Lord and all of the laws of justice and the people answered with one voice and said, “all the words which the Lord had spoken, will be done” (Exodus 24:3).
Among other events that occurred at Mount Sinai, one is so memorable that it has been the subject of books, films and theater. Upon the invitation of God, Moses ascended Mount Sinai for an extended period. When he did not return for many days and nights, the Israelite tribes feared that he had a tragic end and that they were abandoned in the wilderness.
They felt the need for a God to assist them in their unenviable circumstance and enjoined Aaron to summon one. Gold was assembled, thrown in a fire and a Golden Calf resulted. The tribes were humbling themselves and presenting burnt offerings before the Golden Calf when Moses descended from the mountain carrying two stone tablets inscribed with the Ten Commandments. Moses’ anger knew no bounds as he threw the tablets to the ground, destroyed the Calf, and reproached the tribes.
The only one angrier than Moses was God. Moses skillfully assuaged the anger of God and allowed the journey to continue unaborted. However, he was directed by God to return to the mountain with two, blank, stone tablets for reinscription with the Ten Commandments. It must have taken a heroic effort for an 80-year-old man to climb Mount Sinai with two stone tablets in his arms without assistance. He remained for an additional 40 days and 40 nights before returning to the encampment.
The events of Mount Sinai presume that they occurred when the Jews left slavery in Egypt and were enroute to their promised land in Canaan. There are respected, modern Israeli archaeologists and historians that doubt that the Twelve Tribes of Israel ever resided in Egypt or were slaves to the Pharaoh. They suggest the notion that the people of Israel were original and continuous residents of Canaan until removed by invading armies of Assyria and Babylonia. Obviously, without Israelite residence in Egypt and subsequent exodus, it places into issue the Written Torah’s description of what reportedly occurred at Mount Sinai. I hasten to add that while there are a number of respected Israeli archaeologists and historians who support that position, there are also Israeli archaeologists and historians who support to the Torah’s description of the events at Mount Sinai.
Language
Assuming the accuracy of the Exodus from Egypt described in the Torah, what language was spoken by Moses, Aaron and the liberated Israelite slaves? According to the Torah, the Israelites lived in Egypt for 430 years. That is the fundamental equivalent of 14 successive generations. What is the likelihood that the Hebrew language would have survived among the Israelites for that period of time in Egypt?
We have, by way of example, a similar situation in our lifetime. Most American Jews today are of Ashkenazi origin. Their grandparents may have come from Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine, Belarus, Hungary, Germany, Czechoslovakia or other parts of Europe. By the time their first generation was born in America and matured, they knew little to nothing of the language of the countries from which their parents had emigrated. By the time the second generation matured (the grandchildren), they knew little to nothing of Yiddish, the Esperanto among the diaspora Jewish communities, and that was only two generations. How then, should we consider the likelihood that after 14 generations of Egyptian residency, the liberated Jews still spoke Hebrew? Given that Moses was raised as an Egyptian Prince and that Aaron and his sister Miriam were born and raised in Egypt, is it not likely that the spoken language of the Exodus was Egyptian?
If that were the case, in what language did God speak to the Israelites at Mount Sinai and in what language did God recite the halachic laws to Moses so that they could be taught to the Israelite people? In considering that issue, keep in mind that the Jewish faith did not become a religion until the arrival of the 450 BCE Torah. Prior to that, God was simply the tribal God of the Israelite people.
As the study of the history of the Jewish people meanders from the spiritual to the academic, some require more credible facts and fewer miraculous interventions. A significant number of biblical archaeologists today believe that the narrative of the Exodus is best understood as a founding myth of the Jewish people, providing an ideological foundation for their culture and institutions, and not necessarily an accurate depiction of the history of the Israelites. Should that become the prevailing view, it would tend to negate all of God’s efforts in saving the Jewish people from slavery. Passover would become a legend and the youngest child at a seder, if there were a seder, would have yet a fifth question, “why in the world are we here?”
For those who cogitate the historicity of Mount Sinai and God’s delivery of the Torah to the Israelite tribes at that site, there are some interesting thoughts.
Was the Torah Delivered to the Israelites at Mount Sinai on or about 1280 BCE?
What we know is that the 450 BCE Written Torah (the Torah that resides in the sanctuaries of our temples) contains two principal elements: law (Halacha) and history (Haggadah). The Haggadah portion describes the creation of the earth, the flood, the patriarchs, their wives, their children and their relationships with each other. That information is contained in the first book of the Written Torah, Genesis.
When describing what occurred at Mount Sinai. We are informed that God orally recited the Ten Commandments to the Israelites. However, they were so frightened that they requested that the rest of the law be delivered to Moses, who would then teach it to them. God accommodated that request and in a private oral communication revealed the law of the Torah to Moses, who subsequently taught it to the Israelites.
What is not apparent is how Moses recalled the details of at least 100 different laws revealed by God.
There is no indication that the Haggadah (history) portion of the Torah, Genesis, was ever revealed or discussed at Mount Sinai. No evidence has ever been found that the laws revealed by God to Moses at Mount Sinai were ever transcribed for instruction to subsequent generations.
For some, trying to identify whether a Torah was delivered at Mount Sinai, parts of Four Books of Moses might not be sufficient. Then again, for others, just the delivery of the Ten Commandments may suffice.
Obviously, the only information we have about the history of the Exodus is contained in the 450 BCE Written Torah, which appeared almost 800 years after those events were reported to have taken place. It is unknown where that information originated and how it got to the scribes of the Written Torah after such an extended interval.
Each individual who cherishes the religious and historical aspect of the Exodus can decide whether the events of the Exodus as reported are authentic. I suspect that for some, including this writer, the interface between tradition born of faith and assertions of contrary facts leads to an uncomfortable state of ambivalence.
Doug Kaplan